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Unique 3D perspective of trilobite anatomy preserved by rapid burial

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Rapid volcanic ash entombment reveals the 3D anatomy of Cambrian trilobites
by: Abderrazak El Albani, Arnaud Mazurier, Gregory D. Edgecombe, Abdelfattah Azizi, Asmaa El Bakhouch, Harry O. Berks, El Hafid Bouougri, Ibtissam Chraiki, Philip C.J. Donoghue, Claude Fontaine, Robert R. Gaines, Mohamed Ghnahalla, Alain Meunier, Alain Trentesaux, and John R. Paterson.

Summarized by Erin Potter: Erin lives in the Binghamton, NY area. She is a lecturer in the Geography Department at Binghamton University, where she hopes to also pursue her Ph.D. in Earth Sciences. Erin holds a Master’s degree in geosciences with a concentration in teaching, as well as a Masters in atmospheric science. She has one daughter, a scientist in the making, and knows the importance of being a role model and a representative of women in science.

What data were used? The authors examined trilobites, which are extinct creatures that lived from 521 to 252 million years ago. They primarily lived in ocean environments and are related to things like the pill bugs alive today. Two trilobite species were retrieved from volcanic ash in Morocco. Authors collected the ash as well. The species are Protolenus (Hupeolenus) and Gigoutella mauretanica which are both from the Cambrian Period, about 538 to 485 million years ago.

What was the hypothesis being tested? The goal of this study was to examine the specific processes of fossilization of trilobites from rapid cooling of volcanic ash as it entered a shallow marine environment, preserving fine details of trilobite anatomy. 

Methodology: The authors used a type of X-ray imaging to capture internal structures from the two species of trilobites. They also assessed the fossilization process of the volcanic ash and the minerals in the ash responsible for the preservation. Three-dimensional images created by the X-ray imaging were analyzed to show the fine anatomy preservation.  

Results: Several intricate features were found, many previously unknown for these species (Figure 1). Among these anatomy features found were antennae and the related appendages (much like other arthropods, like insects have antennae). Appendages for moving and feeding were clearly visible in the X-ray images, including claws. The digestive system–such as the esophagus, intestines, and digestive glands– is preserved with great detail in one of the species. The mouthparts (called the hypostome and labrum) were examined in the 3D imagery. The Gigoutella mauretanica specimen was found to have been preserved with smaller organisms attached to the hard exoskeleton. The rapid burial allowed for these small organisms, called brachiopods (two shelled organisms that were common 538 to 252 million years ago), to be preserved attached to the trilobite specimen. Even soft tissue, like the pedicle (the fleshy attachment structure on the brachiopod) can be seen on the preserved specimens. The ash that was studied showed various sizes and mineral composition. Grain size ranged from larger grains called lapilli to very fine-grained ash. The organization of grain sizes indicated a single event was responsible for this volcanic rapid burial. Minerals that made up the volcanic material included quartz/silica, calcite, and chlorite. The mineral composition around the trilobites (quartz/silica, albite, and iron chlorite) shows evidence of an interaction of the volcanic material with the shallow marine environment that the trilobites would have lived in. 

Panel A depicts the underside of the Protolenus (Hupeolenus) specimen with a long antenna extending from the head. There is a 1 mm scale bar on the image, so the total length is about 10 mm. The head appears as a shield with pointed end extending to half its body length. The body is made up of many segments decreasing in size to the tail. Each segment has a spike-like feature on either end and 2 pointed legs. Panel B shows the underside of the Gigoutella mauretanica specimen. There is a 3 mm scale bar on the image, so the total length is about 18 mm. The head appears as a shield with pointed ends extending to about a quarter of its body length. The body is made up of many segments decreasing in size to the tail. Each segment has a spike-like feature on either end and 2 pointed legs. Panel C is the side view of the Protolenus (Hupeolenus) specimen with the segments and legs decreasing in size to the tail here. Certain features are highlighted in colors here. A blob curving up to the specimen’s back and running from the head to the tail across the top is the digestive system shown in blue. A smaller blob of green is found within the head where the digestive system meets, this is the hypostome and a smaller orange spot behind that is the labrum, both mouthparts. Panel D is the top view of the Protolenus (Hupeolenus) specimen showing the highlighted colored features. The digestive system shown in blue running down the middle of the back. The head contains the green and orange highlighted mouthparts. Panel E is a top angled view of the Gigoutella mauretanica specimen with a 4 mm scale bar. Highlighted in blue are small (slightly less than 1 mm) brachiopods attached to the trilobite, one on the top right side of the specimen and the other 3 on the edge of the left side. Panel F is a zoomed in view of panel E with the 3 closer brachiopods. The 1 mm scale bar indicates these shelled organisms are slightly smaller than 1 mm. The blue highlighted image shows the shell and the fleshy pedicle that attaches to the trilobite.
Figure 1: Trilobite reconstructions showing high resolution, complex features of the anatomy. A, C, and D show different views of the Protolenus (Hupeolenus) specimen. Panels B, E, and F show the Gigoutella mauretanica specimen. Shown are 3D paired appendages, the digestive system and glands (C and D shown by colors), and brachiopods attached to the organism (E and F).

Why is this study important? There is limited information on the internal anatomy of creatures that existed during the Cambrian, 538 to 485 million years ago. The researchers described the fine, soft tissue features of the organisms, something so rare in the fossil record. Typically, the hard parts of an organism, like shells and bones, are what get preserved in greater detail in the fossil record. Animal fossils from this time are often incomplete. This research fills in the gaps of the soft-anatomy features of trilobites in the Cambrian. These preserved features were previously undescribed for these particular species, adding to the current knowledge of trilobite anatomy. 

Broader Implications beyond this study: The way these soft parts of the body have been preserved so well by rapid volcanic ash leads to the possibility of exploring this type of fossilization process further. Perhaps more can be learned about other organisms by looking for other fossils in this source. Ash is known to preserve well, as it does not crush the organism. Volcanic events like the one in this paper involve a pyroclastic flow, typical in large stratovolcanoes. These flows are fast and hot, and result in various sized grains like the researchers describe. This leads to the rapid burial and the ash acts like cement for the organisms trapped. This has been noted in other research papers for other organisms, like an ancient vulture found near Rome, Italy (Dawid et al.). By documenting these cases in volcanic regions, future research can look to these areas for more examples of fine-detailed, soft-body anatomical feature preservation.  

Citation: Abderrazak El Albani, Arnaud Mazurier, Gregory D. Edgecombe, Abdelfattah Azizi, Asmaa El Bakhouch, Harry O. Berks, El Hafid Bouougri, Ibtissam Chraiki, Philip C.J. Donoghue, Claude Fontaine, Robert R. Gaines, Mohamed Ghnahalla, Alain Meunier, Alain Trentesaux, and John R. Paterson.  Rapid volcanic ash entombment reveals the 3D anatomy of Cambrian trilobites. Science 384,1429–1435(2024).DOI:10.1126/science.adl4540

Dawid A. Iurino, Luca Bellucci, Danielle Schreve, Raffaele Sardella. Exceptional soft tissue fossilization of a Pleistocene vulture (Gyps fulvus): new evidence for emplacement temperatures of pyroclastic flow deposits. Quaternary Science Reviews, 96, 180–187 (2014). DOI: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.04.024.

New information obtained through analysis of a juvenile fossil reveals that early mammals had a longer life history than modern mammals of similar size.

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Jurassic fossil juvenile reveals prolonged life history in early mammals

By: Elsa Panciroli et al.

Summarized by: Thomas Smith, Senior at Binghamton University

What was the hypothesis being tested? Mammaliaformes were the immediate predecessors of modern mammals. Scientists believed they had a life history that included rapid juvenile growth, early maturation into adulthood, and relatively short lifespans, like modern mammals of that size (156 grams or less). However, examination of two newly found hyrax-like Krusatodon kirtlingtonenesis fossils from the Jurassic Period revealed that this species, and possibly all mammaliaformes did not follow the life history of their modern equivalents. Scientists tested this hypothesis in this study by reconstructing the growth stage and life history of these new fossils. 

What data were used? The two fossils studied in this experiment were of the species Krusatodon, resembling modern shrews, but were likely closer to modern hyraxes, small mammals with elongated front teeth. Despite being a 166-million-year-old Jurassic fossil, an adult Krusatodon fossil was 95% intact; a juvenile fossil (between 7 and 24 months old at time of death) at around 40% intact was also examined for this study. Both samples had their dentition (teeth) preserved well enough to study. The discovery of the juvenile fossil finally allowed researchers to examine the growth patterns and life histories of mammaliaformes, and to compare it to modern mammals.

Methodology: Researchers used an imaging technique called propagation phase-contrast synchrotron radiation x-ray micro-computed tomography to create highly detailed digital, 3D models of both the juvenile and adult skeletons (Figure 1). Researchers compared the adult and juvenile skeletons to each other, and to modern mammals. Researchers also studied the skulls of the samples to determine the stages of dental eruption (the point in which “baby teeth” are replaced by “adult teeth”) that each exhibited.

Results: The juvenile fossil had a partial eruption of its adult teeth at the time of its death. The first two molars on both the upper and lower jaw had erupted, with one of the upper molars in the process of erupting. The remaining teeth were either first generation teeth (i.e. baby teeth) or were unable to be classified. The presumed-adult fossil displayed full permanent dentition, confirming the maturity of the sample. Comparing the eruption status of the juvenile Krusatodon fossil to modern mammals of the same size and age, scientists determined that the Krusatodon developed slower, and matured into its adult form later on into its life; mammals are typically fully matured by the time their last permanent tooth erupts, so the lack of complete dental eruption in the juvenile fossil indicates that even at its relatively older age, it was still far from adulthood. Additional comparisons between the timing of the dental eruption and jaw length suggest that the Kusatodon’s growth patterns are proportional to modern mammals, just at a slower rate. All of these results together indicate that the Krusatodon had a longer life cycle than would be expected of modern mammals in their size range.

The image shows four models of skulls. The bones are color coordinated across all four models. All of the bones are labeled, with arrows pointing from the label to the bone. The dentition on both samples is visible but is unlabeled. Both samples have multiple large canine teeth near the front, with several molars near the back of the jaw. Scale bar of 10 mm is present and suggests that the juvenile skull is approximately 25-30 mm long, and the adult is 40-45 mm long.
The digital models of the juvenile (A/C) and adult (B/D) skulls. A/B are digital scans of the preserved fossils, while C/D have been manipulated for clarity. The juvenile fossil is partially incomplete, but the general shape of the skull is still clearly suggested.

Why is this study important: The typical pattern that mammals follow in terms of life histories, is that as body mass increases, the time to reach sexual maturity and lifespan extend, with longer juvenile phases and a slower metabolic rate. The results of this study disrupt this pattern, with the relatively small Krusatodon having a relatively long youth and lifespan. A species’ growth pattern and life history strategy plays an important role in its survival, both at the organism and population level. This study indicates a massive shift in the knowledge base, suggesting large chunks of information about Jurassic mammals and their life history strategies could be incorrect. 

Broader Implications beyond this study: This finding might indicate that the life histories of other early mammals need to be reexamined. More research on other Jurassic mammal species is needed to determine if this discovery was species specific or if it applies to more Jurassic mammals, but this study could alter what scientists know about the evolution of this pattern in life histories. 

Citation: Panciroli, E., Benson, R. B., Fernandez, V., Fraser, N. C., Humpage, M., Luo, Z.-X., Newham, E., & Walsh, S. (2024). Jurassic fossil juvenile reveals prolonged life history in early mammals. Nature, 632(8026), 815–822. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07733-1 

The discovery of a new macro-spined spider-like arachnid species reveals more on the late Carboniferous Period

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A remarkable spiny arachnid from the Pennsylvanian Mazon Creek Lagerstätte, Illinois

By: Paul A. Selden and Jason A. Dunlop

Summarized by Alivia Tom. Alivia is an undergraduate student at Binghamton University who is working towards a Bachelor’s of Science in the Biology Department. She loves to go on hikes and explore nature in her free time.

What was the hypothesis being tested? In this paper, paleontologists Paul A. Selden and Jason A. Dunlop report the results of studying a newly described that was originally discovered in the 1980s. Researchers examined a spider-like fossil from the late Carboniferous Period (~323–298 mya) to determine whether this specimen represent its own new species based on its identifiable characteristics, or if it belongs to an already existing species.

What data were used? Researchers examine a single specimen from the Pit 15 Northern Mine spoil heap located in the Pennsylvanian Mazon Creek in Illinois, USA. This area is classified as a Lagerstätte, which is a geologic unit that has the ability to preserve fossils extremely well. Many other well-preserved fossils have been discovered from this area, including other arachnids and mites. This specimen was compared to many other identified fossil organisms, mainly other arachnids. The data for the other species was sourced from data sets in research papers created by many other scientists. Some of the body parts that were compared included its abdomen and legs, as well as the shape of its body. 

Methodology: The person who had found the fossil in the 1980s, Bob Masek, decided to leave the fossil in water during the winter. This allowed the water to run through the existing cracks of the material surrounding the fossil, and then expand through freezing. A hammer was then used on the surrounding material to reveal the fossil. After the discovery and reveal of this fossil, it was passed to the Douglass family Prehistoric Life Museum in Illinois, USA,  and then donated to The Field Museum of Natural History for further research. A Canon EOS 5DSR digital camera alongside a Leica MZ16 microscope and low-angled light were used to take pictures of this fossil. When these two instruments were used together, the intricate forms and structures of the fossil were revealed. Pictures of different angles of the fossil were taken to capture details that other angles could not see, and these pictures were layered on top of each other. Through the combination of multiple photographs and further detailing using a microscope, drawings of the fossil were created using Affinity Designer 2 (Fig 1.). Researchers contrasted the differences from the body layout of the new specimen to other studied species, such as how each body part was attached to each other, how they fused to each other, and how the lengths of each body part compared.

Results: This fossil was classified as an arachnid, because of its four pairs of legs, two body parts, fused head and chest, and segmented rear end. However, it was not placed into any existing species due to its distinct large spines on its legs, a very fused head and chest, and very large and equivalent legs. Scientists classified this specimen as a new genus and species, after comparing many of its characteristics to other existing or extinct species that appeared to be similar. This conclusion was reached after determining that the characteristics of the fossil did not match any known arachnid species. Some of its differences include its large spiky spines. They named the new genus and species Douglassarachne acanthopoda. Its differences also do not allow it to be placed into any existing order. An example of a difference that it had was that all its legs appeared to have the same frame and length, setting it apart from harvestmen. Harvestmen are an order of arachnids that have an oval shaped body and thin legs that are of varying lengths.

There is a figure with an oval-like body and four pairs of two limbs attached to the body. The first pair of limbs is shorter than the rest of the limbs, and large spines are attached to each limb. This figure is encrusted in a rock surface. The figure on the right is a drawn image of the photograph on the left. Specimen is about 20 mm wide by about 35–40 mm in length, including legs.
Figure 1. An image of the new spiny arachnid, taken with a Canon EOS 5DSR digital camera (left) and a line drawing of the specimen (right). The material surrounding the arachnid was emphasized using different angles of low light. The spines are emphasized in this picture, which may hint towards defense mechanisms of the late Carboniferous. Scale= 5 mm.

Why is this study important? This study could make scientists consider a wider range of possible body plans that may have existed in the late Carboniferous, as this arachnid’s body plans did not match any that were previously discovered. Scientists also created hypotheses of what the purpose of these spiny spikes were used for. They hypothesized that they could have been used for defense, creating a longer handling time for predators, increasing their ability to escape and survive.

Broader implications beyond this study: Further studies on this area could also reveal more about the fossil record of the Carboniferous period, as Mazon Creek is known to be able to preserve soft tissue. Even fossils with hard tissues are difficult to preserve, and fossils with soft tissue are even more difficult to preserve as their bodies typically decay quickly after death.. 

Citation: Selden, P. A., & Dunlop, J. A. (2024). A remarkable spiny arachnid from the Pennsylvanian Mazon Creek Lagerstätte, Illinois. Journal of Paleontology, 1–7. doi:10.1017/jpa.2024.13

Studying the teeth of past and present lemmings to reclassify their ancestors in Western & Central Europe

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Re-investigation of fossil Lemmini specimens from the early and Middle Pleistocene of Western and Central Europe: Evolutionary and paleoenvironmental implications

By Louis, A., Tereza, H., Aurélien, R., Sophie, M., Oldřich, F., & Ivan, H. 

Summarized by Luka Del Canto. Luka is a senior at Binghamton University studying biological sciences. He plans to finish his bachelor’s degree and pursue a master’s in genetics, with the ultimate goal of becoming a genetic counselor. Luka is also an avid sports fan who spends most of his Sundays watching football with his friends. Additionally, he loves to go on hikes when the weather is nicer and has a passion for cooking as well.

What was the hypothesis being tested? Researchers from this study hypothesized that a genus of the lemming species known as Myopus was wrongly disregarded during the European Pleistocene fossil record (2.6 Ma-11.7Ka), and that it actually coexisted with other lemming genera like Lemmus during this period. These small arctic rodents have very similar dental morphologies, which is what made them so hard to distinguish from one another, and the reason they were previously regarded as just Lemmus. This study will also test the validity of the earliest species of the Lemmini tribe, L. kowalskii, and whether or not it can be considered the ancestral form of the Lemmus genera.

What data were used? The study included lemming specimens from fossil and living species, including well-preserved skulls, mandibles, and isolated teeth obtained from museums and fossil siles. A total of 65 M1 and 41 M3 fossil teeth were gathered from eight locations in the Czech Republic, France, and Germany, representing early to middle Pleistocene populations. Another 295 third upper molars (M3) and 324 first lower molars (M1) were collected from museums as living species referential data. To analyze taxonomic differences between the genera Lemmus and Myopus, detailed measurements of dental features were taken with focus on tooth size and shape. Then, these measurements were used to perform statistical analyses to identify morphological variations and potential evolutionary relationships.

Methodology: Researchers outlined specific points on the teeth called landmarks and mapped them out digitally. Since the teeth of fossil and living specimens differed in size and orientation, those differences needed to be removed to prepare them for further analysis. A Generalized Procrustes Analysis (GPA) aligned the teeth landmarks, and principal component analysis (PCA) was then used to analyze all the dental features by summarizing the data into a few principal components. Researchers then identified variations and similarities between these features in fossil and living specimens. Finally, linear discriminant analysis (LDA) was used to take the variations and separate them into different genera like Lemmus or Myopus by finding the features that best distinguished each group. Modern teeth were used as a model to train the LDA into identifying major differences in the genera. Once the model was trained and validated, it was applied to fossil specimens and predicted whether each fossil belonged to Lemmus or Myopus based on its distinguishing features.

Results: Initial results were promising, as many Myopus and Lemmus fossils were both identified at multiple sites, providing proof that they lived in the same time period as they were in the same rock layer. Analysis showed significant shape variation in both M1 and M3 molars, with the first three principal components accounting for nearly 50% of total shape variation (Fig.1). More compact teeth and a less pronounced rear portion of the molar were among the morphological changes observed on the PC graphs. In terms of overall tooth size, fossil populations had teeth similar to Myopus, slightly larger but much smaller than Lemmus, which had the largest teeth for both M1 and M3. Lemmus also had a larger convex hull volume than Myopus, meaning a greater variety in shape and size. However, fossil populations had variation scores comparable to or exceeding those of modern genera, even with fewer specimens, suggesting that the fossils may include multiple genera. The LDAs also showed clear differences between Lemmus and Myopus and were able to assign different fossils to each genus, showing that these genera indeed coexisted during the European Pleistocene fossil record. PCA analysis showed that fossil teeth assigned to L. Kowalskii clustered with modern Lemmus teeth, ultimately validating its taxonomic status as a species within the Lemmus genus. 

Why is this study important? Misassignment of different genera can lead to a misunderstanding of the evolutionary interactions between them. Due to their similar morphologies, Lemmus and Myopus were misclassified as the same genus. Our knowledge of the taxonomic relationships between Myopus and Lemmus in the Pleistocene fossil record were redefined, representing a reliable method for future fossil identification studies. Through the methods used, the study enabled researchers to quantify shape variations that may be missed by more conventional classification approaches that were used in the past like visual inspection and simpler measurements. Modern techniques like GPA, PCA and LDA are particularly useful for differentiating between species that have similar morphologies.

This figure contains seven panels (A–H) analyzing tooth morphology data from various populations of lemmings and fossil samples using Principal Component Analysis and size comparisons. The figure also includes a color-coded legend indicating different groups: Lemmus (modern lemmings)–blue, Myopus–yellow, Koněprusy C718–green, Sackdilling Cave–purple, Schernfeld–pink, L. kowalskii–red star. Each panel focuses on different aspects of morphological variation across these populations. The scatterplots show that Myopus mostly clusters away from the other groups, meaning its tooth shape is noticeably different. Modern Lemmus tends to cluster tightly, with a bit more variation in panels A and E, suggesting their teeth are more uniform in shape. The lollipop graphs in panels D and H show that Lemmus generally has larger teeth for both M1 and M3 compared to Myopus and fossil samples.
Figure 1: PC projections of every axis that explain more than 10% of the shape variation for each molar, with a lollipop graph showing the changes in morphology along the axis’ positive side. PC1 shows differences in mean size and shape, while PC2 explains variation in size of the triangular-shaped side structures on the teeth, and how far back on the teeth they’re positioned. PC3 focuses on front and back curved areas of the tooth, how prominent the side structures are and how distinct the back edge of the tooth is. In A–C each PC is plotted against another to show differences in the lower first molar (M1) between groups of lemmings, and D shows the average M1 tooth (centroid) size between groups with Lemmus having the largest on average. E–H shows the same things but for the third upper molars (M3). For M1, groups seem to differ along the PC2 axis, with Lemmus being the only group on the negative side while Myopus and most fossil populations being on the positive, meaning Lemmus had prominent side structures, while other groups showed smaller side structures that were positioned more towards the back of the tooth. For the third upper molar, the first PC shows a clear distinction in groups as Lemmus and Schernfeld are on the negative side of the axis, while Myopus is on the positive side with Sackdilling Cave, pertaining with more compact teeth (Schernfeld and Sackdilling are individual specimens not yet assigned to a species). Lemmus kowalskii’s position is indicated by the red star, and shows the greatest variation from other groups in graphs F and G.

Broader implications beyond this study: The results of this study have wider ramifications for our comprehension of species classification and divergence in the fossil record. The history of the Lemmini tribe has changed as we now know that Myopus and Lemmus coexisted. The capacity to distinguish between closely related species by dental morphology aids in the reconstruction of an evolutionary history with greater accuracy, not only for lemmings but possibly for other mammals as well. It also calls into question the validity of earlier taxonomic hypotheses and the necessity of reexamining other ancient groups that have morphological similarities, like voles and muskrats.

Citation: Louis, A., Tereza, H., Aurélien, R., Sophie, M., Oldřich, F., & Ivan, H. (2024). Re-investigation of fossil Lemmini specimens from the early and Middle Pleistocene of Western and Central Europe: Evolutionary and paleoenvironmental implications. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 641, 112128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2024.112128

Unique colonies found in fossilized Cambrian green algae

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Colonial green algae in the Cambrian plankton by: Thomas H.P. Harvey

Summarized by Jacob Hood is a senior at Binghamton University studying biology. He plans on attending graduate school for ecology and joining the field of environmental conservation. In his free time Jacob enjoys hiking and spending time with his adorable cat.

What data were used? The data used in this paper are microfossils of green algae fossilized in colonies from millions of years ago. These fossils were found in the Fortean Formation of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, dating from the Cambrian, around 506–514 million years ago. Scientists created thin sections (slides for a microscope); from the collected data, 59 colonies were identified and analyzed using transmitted light micrographs–think of a standard microscope with a lens on top and light shining up through a slide. Then images were then created using two wavelengths of light together to create a clear visual contrast to human eyes, known as differential interference.

What was the hypothesis being tested?  This paper is a report on findings of microfossils from the early Cambrian. These well-preserved phytoplankton give us insight into a pivotal moment in planktonic (organisms that float in the water column) development, when colonies began to take on new structures to deal with new predation and ecological changes. This allows us to see when and how ecosystems were drastically changing during the transition between the Proterozoic roughly 2.5 billion years to 541 million years old and Paleozoic from 541–252 million years ago.

Methodology: Targeted sampling locations included fine-grained, unaltered mudstones from the Middle Shale Member of the Fortean Formation, which were observed at three different sites: Mount St. Margaret Quarry, the ‘Ten Mile Lake Quarry’ located in western Newfoundland, and the L’Anse-Au-Loup Quarry in southern Labrador. Samples were collected based on knowledge of ancient geographic zones. Collections were taken at what were once moderate ocean water depths on an exposed shelf area beneath the storm wave impact zone. Occasionally, there were thin layers of organic matter made of many fragments of solidified algal organisms deposited during storms, and the samples were layered near the interpreted peak flooding surface, where the water level was interpreted to have reached its maximum depth in a particular area during this time in the early Cambrian, exactly where these algae would have lived or been dropped during their lives. Many other fossils found in the area are typical of the Cambrian, such as early arthropods (the group that contains lobsters) like trilobites, small cone-shelled creatures called hyolithids, early echinoderms (the group that includes sea stars), and sponges,. Up to 50 g samples were analyzed using conventional microfossil methods consisting of placing microbe fossils in a water solution and placing them on a slide and waiting until they’ve been dried enough for a clear image.This is known as a strew slide. Other samples were prepared through a modified hydrofluoric acid extraction method specifically designed for small carbonaceous fossils (SCFs). Out of the 59 colonies that were found, 46 were located on palynological strew slides, surrounded by thousands of unidentified specimens. 13 specimens were then carefully selected from leftover materials containing SCFs, such as bits of sponge skeleton, sections of early worm bodies, and armor-like plates called sclerites from a slug resembling creature known as Wiwaxia. These 13 specimens were placed one by one on glass slides with a pipette then left to dry and looked at under a microscope These samples were then digitized using images from light microscopes created with differential interference contrast, a type of microscopy where electrons are sent to meet at specific planes of the slide and are merged to create a clear and strong signal to be measured electronically for observation. Images were then illustrated, and traits were measured and categorized based on morphological characteristics such as size, shape, and number of cells per colony.

Results: Throughout the samples, cell size, colonial structures, cell attachment, and number of cells per colony varies significantly when measured. There is no straightforward connection found between the size of a colony, the number of cells, and the size of each individual cell. Generally, colonies with a greater size tend to have larger cells, and algae with struts, which connect cells to each other in a colony, are only present in bigger specimens. On the other hand, ring-shaped colonies that consist of a circular colony of algae were found with cells that are smaller in size. However, similar cell configurations may be seen at various sizes: for example, 12-cell colonies arranged in a hexagonal pattern can exhibit either spacious struts creating a small space between cells or denser cell arrangements with closely packed cells, while star-shaped plates composed of seven or eight cells varied in size from 40 to 95 µm in diameter. Overall, there was a wide range of sizes and considerable diversity in these ancient microbe fossils, which continued to increase during the Cambrian (Figure 1).

This image depicts different colonial shapes; ring-forming colonies that take on a empty circular shape, strut-forming colonies which use thin bridge-like structures to connect, and plate-forming colonies which make flat clumps and usually connect directly between cells. The scale bar is 20 microns and most of the subparts are about 40–120 microns wide.
This figure depicts colonial microfossils found. The different colony forming structures can be seen, such as ring-forming (g,l,p,q,r), strut-forming (a,f), and plate-forming (b-e, h-k, m-o, s-u).

It is challenging to differentiate distinct subgroups of these algae due to the similarities in the shape and placement of hairs and spines which poke out from cell walls and give cells texture, the range of cell and colony sizes, and the overlapping colony patterns and cell connections present. The collection instead appears to indicate an individual species that exhibits a high degree of variability, or a small group of interconnected species sharing a similar basic biology. It is believed these algae grew as entire colonies from the moment they split form the mother colony, a strategy not common before or after the Cambrian. This is a stark difference from the single celled growing algae seen before this period, which likely evolved to deal with an increased number of large predators in the environment by growing in larger cells sizes and larger cell clumps.

Why is this study important? This study provides an insightful look into the appearance and relationships between algae in one of the most profoundly changing environments in the history of life. The Cambrian Period is time of rapid evolutionary change in organisms, and the green algae lineage has existed long before and long after the Cambrian. This time period offers a glimpse into the major changes that took place during this time, giving us a look into the very base of the food chain during a time that was incredibly formative for life as we know it. This organism shows potential response to predators by evolving larger and more complex forms. 

Broader implications beyond this study:  The specimens found in this study imply unique physical characteristics and colonial structure in green algae during the Cambrian Period. With these organisms serving as the base of many early food webs, understanding their evolution and the pressures they were under to form these shapes, as well as the relationships they formed with other early organisms, provides a crucial line of questions as to how life first evolved into complex forms.

Citation: Harvey, T. H. (2023). Colonial green algae in the Cambrian Plankton. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 290. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2023.1882 

Exploring the hydrodynamic secrets of frond-like fossil Fractofusus misrai: its survivability in different positions and the impacts of water currents

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Hydrodynamic Insights into the Paleobiology of the Ediacaran Rangeomorph Fractofusus misrai

By: Daniel Pérez-Pinedo, Robert Nicholls, Jenna M. Neville, Duncan McIlroy

Summarized by: Hilla Delouya is currently a senior at Binghamton University, majoring in biology with a minor in evolution. Hilla is fascinated by the mysteries of ancient life and how these early organisms interacted with their environment. When not buried in textbooks, Hilla loves exploring nature through hikes and drinking lots of coffee. 

What data were used? This study dives into the ancient world using computer simulations based on detailed 3D models of Fractofusus misrai, an organism that called the deep sea its home over 560 million years ago, also known as the Ediacaran Period. By simulating how water flowed around this leaf-like rangeomorph (i.e. a branching-style fossil from the Ediacaran) organism, researchers could peek into how Fractofusus misrai might have interacted with its environment to thrive.

What was the hypothesis being tested? The core question of this research was to figure out how the orientation of Fractofusus misrai, relative to the ocean currents, could have influenced its ability to get nutrients and breathe. Essentially, the team wanted to know if there was a strategic way that Fractofusus misrai positioned itself to make the most out of its surroundings.

Methodology: The method of choice was computational fluid dynamics (CFD), a fancy term for using computers to analyze and visualize the dynamics of fluid flows. This technique was integral for simulating the interactions between water currents and the complex three-dimensional geometry of Fractofusus misrai. By creating detailed 3D models based on the latest paleobiological data, researchers were able to simulate various water flow scenarios around this ancient organism. The simulations adjusted for variables such as flow velocity and direction. This allowed the team to predict optimal positions for the ways Fractofusus misrai adapted for nutrient uptake and respiratory efficiency within the changing currents of its environment.

This figure depicts a detailed 3-D computer-generated visualization of Fractofusus misrai, portrayed as a leaf-like structure, as it interacts with surrounding ocean currents. The simulation displays the organism in three distinct orientations: vertically, horizontally, and tilted at a slightly acute angle on the theoretical ocean floor. Each orientation is exposed to three different speeds of water currents. The speeds are depicted using varying color gradients and arrows. The colors shift from blue to red to indicate the transition from slower to faster water speeds, depicting the amount of drag the organism experiences in the position along with the current speed, which represents the flow of water as it moves around and interacts with the organism's unique structure is influenced by its position relative to the current.
This figure illustrates the interaction between Fractofusus misrai and the ocean water currents of its predicted environment through the use of a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation. The simulation shows the flow of water around its structure in three different positions with three different water current speeds. The three positions consist of vertical, horizontal, and a slightly acute angle. The color gradients and arrow indicate the speed and direction of the water flow that goes through the leaf-like organism. These patterns depict how the organism’s shape influences water movement, aiding in nutrient absorption and respiratory efficiency, which is crucial for the organism’s unique morphology and how it survives in its deep-sea environment.

Results: What researchers found was quite remarkable. By positioning Fractofusus misrai at a slight angle, compared to directly vertical or horizontal to the ocean current, not only minimized drag on the body, but also maximized its ability to collect food and breathe. This strategic positioning likely played a key role in the organism’s survival and efficiency in its deep-sea environment. Thus this slightly angled position allows Fractofusus misrai to better interact with the water around it, reduce drag and not only survive but thrive in its environment.

Why is this study important? Understanding Fractofusus misrai isn’t just about looking back into Earth’s past. Rather, it’s about seeing the bigger picture of life’s early playbook. This study sheds light on the sophisticated ways that Fractofusus misrai and similar organisms might have adapted to their environments, highlighting the complexity and adaptability of early life.

Broader Implications beyond this study: These insights are like opening a time capsule on ecological dynamics of the Ediacaran seas, shedding light on evolutionary innovations during a period when life on Earth was just starting to get complex. It’s a look back at how the foundations of marine ecosystems were laid, offering a lens into how adaptation and survival started, and is still relevant today.

Citation: Pérez-Pinedo, D., Nicholls, R., Neville, J. M., & McIlroy, D. (2024). Hydrodynamic insights into the paleobiology of the Ediacaran rangeomorph Fractofusus misrai . Science, 27(6), 110107. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11214322    

Erin Potter, Ph.D Student and Lecturer

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Tell us a little bit about yourself. Currently, I reside in the Southern Tier of New York. I love to be outdoors. My hobbies include traveling, hiking, paddling, trail maintenance, climbing, yoga, and aerial hoop. I am a big fan of constantly learning new things and having new experiences. I am a full-time single mother with a feisty 6.5 year old daughter. We are both National Parks enthusiasts.

Background contains light colored rocks and some shrubs. The foreground has a woman squatting down in a baseball hat with a rock hammer. There is a small child participating in the swing of the hammering.
Me squatting down with my daughter as a toddler. We are fossil hunting in a rock field in the Alberta badlands.

What kind of scientist are you and what do you do? I love all sciences but focus my career and academics on the Earth and Atmospheric sciences. I hold a Masters in Geosciences with a concentration in teaching and a Masters in Atmospheric Sciences. Past research has examined winter storms, climatic changes and the influence of moist air, called an atmospheric river, as it interacts with mountain ranges such as the Andes. I have a lot of interest in weather and climate, but also love geology. I hope to learn more about paleontology! My upcoming research will focus on effective communication in geosciences and inclusivity within geoscience education.

I am a non-traditional graduate student as I am also a faculty member in Geography, and older than my program-mates. I have been teaching at the college level for about 8 years and have informal education experience with all ages. I have a great passion for teaching and sparking interest in science related topics. I’ve worked at a company called Science Explorers, providing  after-school science enrichment to elementary schools. I’ve worked as an educator and animal care personnel at a natural history museum, a zoo, and a couple nature centers. Recently diagnosed with ADHD, this explains why I am addicted to having multiple jobs and hobbies. I’m always doing something and don’t know how to relax when there’s so much more to learn! I am currently working on my Ph.D. in order to go further in my career and to contribute more to the Geoscience community.

Background contains rock formations and the foreground contains a woman on the right and a young child on the left sitting atop the Arches National Park entry sign.
Sitting on the sign for Arches National Park, my daughter and I are always exploring. Photo credit to our other travel buddy, my mom.

What is your favorite part about being a scientist, and how did you get interested in science? I think every child is born with natural curiosity and those who continue with that curiosity become scientists. I was always interested in the world around me, always exploring nature. The science of the Earth fascinated me from a young age. I didn’t start honing in on my interest in Meteorology until a tornado outbreak in 1998 occurred near my hometown. It wasn’t very devastating, but I was terrified. After that memorable day, I wanted to learn all that I could. I eventually did my undergraduate work in Meteorology, but the department I was in also had geology. I joined some classes and club activities related to geology. I had an interest in it, but my career took me more towards the atmospheric and climate sciences. I felt I was lacking in my academic understanding of geology, so I obtained my first Masters in Geosciences. I pursued a Ph.D. in Atmospheric Sciences after that, but ended up with a second Masters. Now I am in a Geological Sciences Ph.D. program to further my knowledge and research interests. My favorite thing about being a scientist is seeing that spark in others when they witness the magic of science. 

Background is bright sky with the foreground containing a large lava formation with a woman sitting underneath it pretending to hold it up.
Just me playing in a lava field in Iceland.

How does your work contribute to the betterment of society in general? My past work has contributed to better understanding of weather/climate phenomena and climate change. I hope that my future research will add to the ever changing education of complex concepts, the lack of effective communication in geoscience, and add more inclusive modes of learning and teaching.

Background is a night sky in a parking lot with some vehicles. Foreground has a women holding a weather balloon smiling.
Holding a weather balloon to be launched into the sky. This was a project to take measurements of the atmosphere during winter storms in Albany, NY.
Top down image of a woman showing a handful of children the anatomy of a dried horseshoe crab.
One of my many jobs was to educate the public on nature related topics. Here, I am showing a group of Girl Scouts a horseshoe crab’s underside.

What advice do you have for up and coming scientists? There may be people who tell you that you can’t. I certainly have had people tell me not to bother in science because I’m “a woman” or “the field is too competitive”. I didn’t listen to those voices and proved to them that I can do whatever I set my mind to. Another piece of advice is to accept that paths change, but it’ll all work out if you work hard to accomplish your goals. I didn’t think I’d be 35 and just starting a Ph.D. program, but here I am!

Background is a foggy rocky area with the foreground being a woman in exercise attire smiling.
Solo climbing Mount Washington in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. Don’t let anyone ever tell you that you can’t!

Valor Nikesha Smallwood, PhD Student

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Tell us a little about yourself. Hey. It’s been a while since my last post here. Many things have changed since then. I’m a girl now, that’s a pretty big change. My name is Valor now, and I think that’s a good thing to focus on here. I chose my new first and middle names, Valor and Nikesha respectively, for different reasons. Valor means exactly what it sounds like; courage to do what is right, which is something I’ve wanted to embody since I was young. Nikesha is a name derived from the name of the Greek goddess Nike, but it’s also a name I pulled from one of my favorite songs, America by Sammus, and gave to a character I wrote, which was basically just a passion project to explore where my mind was at the time of writing her. It means victory, and it reflects all the thoughts and personal effects I put into writing that character that are largely my own and informed by my experiences, so it felt only natural that I make that apart of my name. But outside of that, to tell a bit more about myself, I am a nerd who loves to write all kinds of things, from novels to poems, listen to hip-hop music of all kinds, play video games, and watch anime (most recently Bocchi the Rock).


What kind of scientist are you and what do you do? I’m a vertebrate paleontologist (a deep and heartfelt apology to all invertebrate paleontologists) studying comparative dire wolf and grey wolf paleoecology using stable isotopes. The samples I work on come from Rancho La Brea in Los Angeles, CA. Currently, I’m using carbon isotopes to examine these canids’ dietary habits and how they fluctuated with climate. I will be moving onto nitrogen isotopes in the very near future to expand the image of their diets with more precise trophic data. From there, I will be performing radiocarbon dating and strontium analysis, to see where in space and when in time sampled dire and grey wolves existed. I’ll also be creating a strontium map of the LA basin as part of this. This will be done to gain more holistic insight into the lives of these organisms, and to see if dire wolves, like modern grey wolves, travelled great distances, possibly to track migrating prey animals.

A black woman with purple and blue hair dressed in goth accessories sitting at a table, hands folded in front of her and looking at the camera. She is in front of a pond with some sedges and trees bordering it.
Me, sitting at a table in front of a pond, looking very demure and very mindful.

What is your favorite part about being a scientist, and how did you get interested in science? My favorite part about being a scientist is the joy of teaching it to other people. Being a teaching assistant, I have taught and will continue to teach undergraduate courses about topics such as introductory biology and geology, and I love watching my students come to understand things more clearly and ask questions that evolve over time to be more and more refined, showing a mastery of the material. It’s also just as nice to be taught things by my students. Details about their interests, forays they’ve made into the working and scientific world, and their insights about politics, diversity, and the world around them. It’s amazing to see, and it makes me feel confident in future generations, which makes it frustrating to see people older than me discrediting and doubting the intelligence and work ethics of younger generations. I got into science from a young age after reading a book about dinosaurs in third grade. I was hooked ever since, which is why I find it so important to foster an interest in science in people of any age and to have patience with people when they stumble over difficult words and concepts.

A black woman with purple and blue hair and goth accessories standing in front of a poster. The poster’s title is “Seasonal Diet Ecology of Rancho La Brea Dire Wolves”, and it discusses her findings about carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes in dire wolves.
Me, posing in front of the poster I presented at GSA Connects, 2024 about my work.

How does your work contribute to the betterment of society in general? My scientific work serves modern conservationists and paleontologists studying ancient systems. A strontium map is helpful for people who want to study it in the future, and a comparative study of dire wolves and grey wolves can help people who want to study the past in further detail as well as those who study grey wolves today, which are under threat by human land encroachment and changing ecosystem dynamics. But I also do work on improving diversity, equity, and inclusion in the sciences and the world around me. From large, concerted efforts like protests, to smaller, personal things like mentoring diverse undergraduates and helping them get research experience alongside someone who resembles them and can help them navigate certain issues, I do my best to make sure people looking to enter the scientific community can do so freely, without fear of discrimination or judgment. 

What advice do you have for up-and-coming scientists? Don’t let anybody tell you that you aren’t good enough, or that you cannot do what you want to do for any reason. If you feel that you can do something and that you want to do it, that’s all that matters. Do what you can to make that happen. Sometimes, detractors will try to make you feel inferior; like you lack the skillset necessary to become what you want to be or like you would be happier elsewhere. The person acting most commonly and most strongly in your best interest is yourself, so you should be the final authority on any decision you decide to make. And many times, people who tell you these negative things simply doubt you, and this can be for many reasons. But there is great satisfaction in proving naysayers wrong.

Ohav Harris, Master’s Paleontology Student

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Tell us a little about yourself. I’ve made a Meet the Scientist post before, but that was a while ago and I think a reintroduction would serve to better reflect the person and scientist I’ve become since then. That being said, hello! My name is Ohav Harris, and I’m currently a master’s student at the University of South Florida. I still very much enjoy reading manga (One Piece, JoJo’s Bizarre Adventure, and Bleach are some of my favorites), and I’ve gotten (back) into some fitness-related hobbies like playing volleyball and weight training. Recently, I’ve also gotten back into creative writing (short stories, poetry, etc.) and fishing (of all things). I’d like to pick up art as a hobby, mostly so I can better appreciate the art I already consume but also because I think romanticism and impressionism are really cool and I would love to, someday, try my hand at those styles.

What kind of scientist are you and what do you do? I’m a paleontologist (paleobiologist if you prefer)! For my research, I study the biogeographic patterns of Paleozoic echinoderms (animals like starfish, sea lilies, and sand dollars) and how things like climate affected them. In other words, I’m interested in how echinoderms diversified over time and space, and what conditions affected that development. I also work on a Jurassic sauropod (long-necked dinosaur) specimen with my friends/colleagues that came out of the Morrison Formation in the Warm Springs Ranch area (Thermopolis, WY – Wyoming Dinosaur Center). This research is mainly focused on trying to figure out what dinosaur our specimen is and describing the condition of the bones themselves.

An office space with Ohav, in a tee shirt and jeans, sitting at a desk with a bookshelf, computer, and divider curtain smiling at the camera.
Me, sitting at my desk trying very hard to look natural.

What is your favorite part about being a scientist, and how did you get interested in science? My favorite part of being a scientist is stumbling upon new questions and thinking or talking about how those questions can be approached. Nothing beats the moment when everything clicks and a question pops into my mind, and I get to brainstorm (ideally out loud with someone else) about how to answer it. I also love working with other scientists because I enjoy seeing how other people think and approach questions, and I consider myself very fortunate to be able to work with so many intelligent and talented people. I’ve always been interested in science, but I had a long phase of wanting to be a lawyer somewhere in my teenage years. After a galvanizing visit to the American Museum of Natural History when I was 17, I committed myself to paleontology and haven’t looked back since!

How does your work contribute to the betterment of society in general? Because I work on the connection between climate and the diversity of echinoderms, which have groups that are still around today, I think I have the opportunity to show how animals and environments today are affected by changing climates. Some animals, like polar bears and coral, are vulnerable to these changes and I think that understanding exactly how and why they are affected is an important step to reaching a solution.  I also work with the Scientist in Every Florida School (S.E.F.S.) program, a group that connects K­–12 teachers with scientists to provide outreach opportunities. With S.E.F.S., I try my best to encourage young students to engage more with scientific topics and kindle their curiosity toward the natural world. To this end, I try to do outreach when I can because I aspire to nurture as much scientific thought in as many people as possible.

What advice do you have for up-and-coming scientists? Be persistent, be flexible, be curious, and be kind to yourself. Throughout your path to scientific superstardom, you’re going to encounter some hurdles, make mistakes, or run into something that changes your entire game plan (which isn’t always a bad thing) – it’s inevitable. It’s important to push forward and give yourself the room to learn and grow (without being too hard on yourself!). Things won’t always go the way you think they might, so keep an open mind and explore your options. Through it all, keep asking questions! Science is driven by questions, and the answers are always a treat to find. Who knows, maybe you’ll ask the question that leads to the discovery of the next big thing!

Karla Rodriguez, Future Hydrogeologist

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Karla Rodriguez standing near the edge of a mountainside cliff in Pocatello, Idaho. She is pictured smiling proudly while wearing sunglasses and a hat. Green, circular wheat fields are in the background.
Karla Rodriguez standing near a cliff in Pocatello, Idaho.

Tell us a little bit about yourself. Hello everyone! My name is Karla Rodriguez, and I am a B.S. of Geology undergraduate at the University of South Florida. I am set to graduate in December 2023, so I have been busy cultivating my resume and interviewing for consultant positions in Florida. My family immigrated to the United States from Cuba in 1996, and I was the first child in my family born here in the U.S. Growing up as a native Floridian, my childhood was often spent with countless visits to beaches and parks. This began my love for natural systems and piqued my curiosity on the ongoing processes which shape the environment. I love exploring the secret corners of the world, where most people don’t explore. I’ve always enjoyed learning how natural systems of Earth work and questioning why certain phenomena occurs. Questions like why the sky is blue and why the ocean is salty are intriguing to me. I also love playing first-person shooter videogames like Valorant and watching anime. I aspire to become a good enough competitive player to take part in tournaments and travel across the globe!

What kind of scientist are you and what do you do? I am currently an intern at the Southwest Florida Water Management District, specifically in the Water Quality Monitoring Program section. We collect water samples of both surface water and groundwater from Levy County (North Florida) to western Charlotte County (South Florida). These water samples are analyzed in our chemistry laboratory, where parameters like chlorophyll concentrations and ionic compounds (ammonia, nitrates, etc.) are documented within the District’s Environmental Data Portal (EDP). Nutrients like nitrates often runoff into nearby water bodies, resulting in algal blooms which can contaminate important drinking water sources. This information is freely available to the public, and organizations often utilize our data to formulate their own decisions on water management. I assist project managers in quality assurance of monitoring data into software such as KISTERS and WISKI, by reviewing field notes, and coding with R script. It feels rewarding contributing to decades long research on Southwest Florida’s water. I take pride working in the public sector; it’s nice meeting with the public to discuss findings on their local communities. I love having a role in how water is managed in Florida– it makes me feel important! Water quality is critical to understand as tens of millions of people rely on Florida’s water reservoirs to survive. It is especially important to assess the state of water supply as climate change continues to change environments globally.

Karla Rodriguez standing in a trench on a beach, smiling at the camera while holding a machete. There are different colored strata seen along the sides of the trench.
Karla Rodriguez standing in a trench on a beach in Florida to examine recent lithology.

What advice do you have for up-and-coming scientists? I believe everyone should pursue their passions in life because if you lack the drive to do something, you’re likely to not reach your true potential. Everyone wants to be the best at something, and to be the best at it they must enjoy the processes (to an extent) that make it happen. Do something you like so life is more enjoyable! Another piece of advice I have would be to carefully envision their future with whatever endeavors they do/desire. It’s helpful to do things with a goal in mind, taking baby steps along the way. Everything will be ok and don’t be afraid to try new things!